2 Robert Smithson, "Some Void Thoughts on Museums," Arts Magazine, February 1967. Reprinted in Robert Smithson, The Writings of Robert Smithson, edited by Nancy Holt, New York 1979, p.58. Henceforth cited as The Writings.

3 William C.Lipke, "Earth Systems," in: Earth Art, Andrew Dickson White Museum of Art, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 1969, n.p.

4 John Gruen, "Art Meets Technology," World Journal Tribune, Magazine Section, New York, October 2, 1966. Quoted in: E.A.T.Clippings , Vol.1 No.1, pp.4-5.

5 Douglas M. Davis, "Art and Technology - The New Combine," Art in America, January/February 1968, p.28. Douglas Davis tried to get to some definition and context about the nature of the newly proclaimed relationship between art and technology and science. After a rather general survey of the artistic fields which had become involved in major technological innovations, Davis distinguished the use by artists of materials produced by recent technology, the use of tools and methods with the same derivation, the use of a new imagery suggested both by the tangible forms of technology, and the revelations of science, and the full partnership between artist and machine in a creative process. Only the last aspect presented something really new and radical in his opinion.

6 Jonas Mekas, "On New Directions, On Anti-Art, On the Old and New in Art," Village Voice, November 11, 1965. Reprinted in Movie Journal, New York 1972, p.208.

7 Lucy R. Lippard & John Chandler, "The Dematerialization of Art," Art International, Vol.XII/2, February 1968, pp.31-36; Lucy R. Lippard, The Dematerialization of the Art Object, New York 1973.

8 Lawrence Alloway, "Systemic Painting," Systemic Painting, New York, 1966.

9 "Today painting and sculpture are no longer wholly satisfying. We need an art of greater energy. We need an art of the total environment. We need an art that unites us with the real rhythms of our era. The art of light and movement is dynamic, environmental and inclusive. ... The old art was an object. The new art is a system." In: Willoughby Sharp, "Luminism and Kineticism," Minimal Art, New York 1968, pp.316, 318.

10 Part of Norbert Wiener's research comprised the development of a scientific theory of messages. He saw the study of messages as "a means of controlling machinery and society, the development of computing machines and other such automata." Wiener defined "information as the name for the content of what is exchanged with the outer world as we adjust to it, and make our adjustment felt upon it." In: Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings, Boston 1950. Cited from First Sphere Books Edition 1968, p.19.

11 Quoted from "Systems of Cross-References in the Arts," by Lawrence Alloway, Mark Roskill and Nicolas Calas, Arts Magazine, Summer 1971, p.16.

12 "Während bisher die Fortsetzbarkeit der Kunst in die Gesellschaftsstruktur eingehängt und dadurch garantiert war, muß die Kunst ihr Überleben allein aus sich selbst heraus sichern, seitdem sie sich wie autopoietische, selbstreferentielle Systeme verhält, welche die Elemente aus denen sie bestehen, durch die Elemente, aus denen sie bestehen zu produzieren haben." Michael Lingner, "Zur Konzeption künftiger öffentlicher Kunst," Kunst im Öffentlichen Raum, ed. Volker Plagemann, Cologne 1989, p.254. Quoted from: Niklas Luhmann, "Das Kunstwerk und die Selbstreproduktion der Kunst," Delfin, III, 1984, p.57. Niklas Luhmann has developed a social theory using the methodology from general systems theory.

13 "Die postmoderne Kunst ist vielmehr als die letzte Stufe konzeptioneller Autonomie zu Begreifen." Michael Lingner, in: Kunst im Öffentlichen Raum, ed. Volker Plagemann, Cologne 1989,  p.255.

14 See Rosalind Krauss, "Sculpture in the Expanded Field," October, 8, 1979, pp.31-44; Lucy R.Lippard, Overlay: Contemporary Art and the Art of Prehistory, New York 1983; John Beardsley, Earthworks and Beyond, New York 1984; Jeffrey L.Cruikshank and Pam Korza, Going Public: A field guide to developments in art in public places, Arts Extension Service in cooperation with the Visual Arts Program of the National Endowment for the Arts, Amherst, Mass. 1988.

15 Culture in Action: A Public Art Program of Sculpture Chicago, Seattle 1995; Mapping the Terrain: New Genre Public Art, ed. Suzanne Lacy, Seattle 1995; But Is It Art? The Spirit of Art as Activism, ed. Nina Felshin, Seattle 1995.

16 Wolfgang Preikschat, Video: Poesie der Neuen Medien, Weinheim 1987. See also: Ars Electronica, Linz, AU; Leonardo; SIGGRAPH's catalogues; Mediamatic.

17 Jack Burnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture - The Effects of Science and Technology on the Sculpture of this Century, New York 1968, p.12.

18 Jack Burnham, The Structure of Art, New York 1970.

19 Gail Scott, in: A Report on the Art and Technology Program of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, ed. Maurice Tuchman, Los Angeles 1971, p.125.

20 Jan Butterfield, "Part I. The State of the Real: Robert Irwin discusses the Activities of an Extended Consciousness," Arts Magazine, June 1972, p.48.

21 Michael Heizer has only recently worked on a land-reclamation project, Effigy Tumuli (1990). Walter De Maria has mainly continued to exhibit in the museum and gallery context. I have thus decided not to allot these artists chapters of their own.

23 Frank Popper wrote extensively on kinetic art. He also discussed the relationships between kinetic art and architecture, and environmental artforms. See Frank Popper, Die Kinetische Kunst, DuMont-Schauberg, Cologne 1975, and Art - action and participation, New York 1975.

24 Susan Sontag, "One Culture and the New Sensibility," Against Interpretation, New York 1967. There was a flurry of English and American publications between 1963 and 1975, reflecting the different positions concerning the role of the arts in science and technology. A general bibliography was published in Leonardo: David. R.Topper and John H.Holloway, "Interrelationships between the Visual Arts, Science and Technology: A Bibliography," Leonardo, Vol.13, 1980, pp.29-33; David R. Topper and John H. Holloway, Interrelationships of the Arts, Sciences and Technology: A Bibliographic Up-date," Leonardo, Vol.18, No.3, 1985, pp.197-200.

25 See Pulsa, "The City as Artwork," Arts of the Environment, ed. Gyorgy kepes, New York 1972, pp.208-221; On USCO, see Gene Youngblood, Expanded Cinema, New York 1970, pp.347-348.

26 John Perrault, "To Make It New," Village Voice, December 5, 1968, p.16.

27 In this book, I will focus on Kepes' theoretical writings, not his art.

28 Judith Wechsler, "Gyorgy Kepes," Gyorgy Kepes: MIT Years 1945-1977, Hayden Gallery, April 28-June 9, 1978, Cambridge, Mass.1978, p.10.

29 At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Gyorgy Kepes met a situation which nowhere else existed. Among the scientists were Norbert Wiener (cybernetics), Harold Edgerton (physical sciences), Richard Held (psychology), Jacob Bronowski (mathematician, visiting professor in 1963), Arthur Loeb (chemical physics), Noam Chomsky (linguistics), Marvin Minsky (artificial intelligence), Jerome Wiesner (electronics).

30 Stewart Brand, The Media Lab. Inventing the Future at M.I.T., Harmondsworth 1987, p.134.

31 Gyorgy Kepes, ed., The New Landscape in Art and Science, (fourth ed.) Cambridge 1967, p.20. The New Landscape in Art and Science contains contributions by scholars from many different areas of expertise. There are contributions by sculptor Naum Gabo, physicist Bruno Rossi, art-historian Siegfried Giedion, architect Richard Neutra, psychologist Heinz Werner, cybernetician Norbert Wiener, and writer Charles Morris.

32  Gyorgy Kepes, ed., The New Landscape in Art and Science, Cambridge, Mass.1967, p.18.

33  Gyorgy Kepes, ed., The New Landscape in Art and Science, Cambridge 1967, p.260.

34  Gyorgy Kepes, ed., The New Landscape in Art and Science, Cambridge 1967, Introduction.

35 Douglas Davis, Art and the Future,  New York 1973, pp.115-119.

36 Kepes correctly noticed for example that "Quantity and measurement are no longer the central preoccupations of mathematics and science. The English scientist (he quotes) Jacob Bronowski has pointed out how problems of shape and relation now occupy the foreground of our organized thinking." In: Gyorgy Kepes, The New Landscape in Art and Science, Cambridge, Mass. 1967, p.173.

37 "Interview: Billy Klüver," conducted by Suzanne Ramljek, Sculpture, May-June 1991, Vol. 10, No.3, p.32.

38 Douglas M. Davis, "Conversations with Gyorgy Kepes, Billy Klüver and James Seawright," Art in America, January/February 1968, pp.38-45.

39 Gyorgy Kepes, "Art and Ecological Consciousness," Arts of the Environment, ed. Gyorgy Kepes, New York 1972, pp.1-12.

40 Gyorgy Kepes, "Toward Civic Art," Leonardo, Vol. 4, No. 1, Winter/Hiver 1971, p.72. Article based on a text published in connection with the exhibition Explorations, held at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., from 4 April-10 May, 1970.

41 The previous significant period of federal support for public art forms was during the thirties through the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and Treasury Section Art Programs.

42 Gyorgy Kepes, "The Artists' Role in Environmental Self-regulation," Arts of the Environment, ed. Gyorgy Kepes, New York 1972, pp.167, 171.

43 Die Globale Revolution, Bericht des Club of Rome 1991, Spiegel Spezial, No. 1, 1991.

44 EAT News (New York), Vol. 1, No.2, June 1, 1967, n.p.

45 Billy Klüver, "The Pavilion," Pavilion, by Experiments in Art and Technology, ed. by Billy Klüver, Julie Martin and Barbara Rose, New York 1972, p.x; Billy Klüver, "Remarks by Billy Klüver," EAT News, Vol. 1, No.3 (November 1, 1967, n.p.); TECHNE, Vol. 1, No.2, New York, November 6, 1970, front page.

46 See for the development of these ideas a 1977 lecture for the I(nternational) I(nstitute) of C(ommunication) Annual Conference 1977, Group Session V: Art and Technology. Lecture by Billy Klüver, "The Artists' Expertise For Communication Planning," published as EAT Proceedings, No.13, December 15, 1977.

47 Jack Burnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture, New York 1968, pp.370, 373.

48 Jack Burnham, "Notes on Art and Information Processing," Software, Information Technology: Its New Meaning for Art, Jewish Museum, New York 1970, pp.10-14.

49 The notion of a dissolution of art had been ventilated a little earlier in Jasia Reichardt's exhibition Cybernetic Serendipity. It was the first major exhibition of computer-based art works, ranging from programmed music scores, computer films, and computer graphics to cybernetic sculptures. See Jasia Reichardt, Cybernetic Serendipity: The Computer and the Arts, Institute of Contemporary Art, London 1968; published as a special issue of Studio International.

51 John Gruen, "Art Meets Technology,"  World Journal Tribune, Magazine Section, New York, October 2, 1966. Quoted from E.A.T. Clippings, Vol. 1, No.1, (April 1966-July 1969), pp.4-5.

52 John Cage, statement in Douglas Davis, Art and the Future, 1973, p.69 (photo caption). Originally from Nine Evenings: Theatre and Engineering, 1966, p.4. David Tudor in: Douglas Davis, Art and the Future, New York 1973, p.70.

53 Nilo Lindgren, "Art and Technology II. A Call for Collaboration," 1969, IEEE Spectrum, May 1969, p.50. Also: Nilo Lindgren, "Art and Technology I. Steps toward a new synergism," IEEE Spectrum, April 1969, pp.59-68.

54 Nilo Lindgren, "Art and Technology II. A Call for Collaboration," IEEE Spectrum, May 1969, p.50.

55 John Gruen, "Art Meets Technology," quoted from:  E.A.T. Clippings, Vol. 1, No.1, (April 1966-July 1969), p.4.

56 Brian O'Doherty, Object and Ideas: An Art Critic's Journal, New York 1967. Quoted from Nilo Lindgren, "Art and Technology, II. A Call for Collaboration," IEEE Spectrum, May 1969, p.47.

57 Jack Burnham, "The Future of Responsive Systems in Art," revised version published in Beyond Modern Sculpture, p.363.

58 Nilo Lindgren, "Art and Technology II. A Call for Collaboration," IEEE Spectrum, May 1969, p.49.

59 The organization of the Nine Evenings took enormous efforts and patience from all participants. "It is estimated that over 859 engineering hours went into the preparation , worth on paper at least $150,000. Nineteen engineers contributed more than 2,500 hours. The real cost of the extravaganza was more than $100,000. The total audience for the nine days was 10,000." See Douglas Davis, Art and the Future, New York 1973, p.69; John Gruen, "Art Meets Technology," cited from E.A.T. Clippings, (April 1966-July 1969), pp.4-5. Published as EAT Proceedings, No. 7, July 1969, a compilation of 80 newspaper and magazine clippings, with a complete bibliography on E.A.T. until July 1969.

60 Nilo Lindgren, "Art and Technology II. A Call for Collaboration," IEEE Spectrum, May 1969, pp.47, 48.

61 One of the thorough art critiques was written by Lucy Lippard, but she discussed the Nine Evenings mainly within the context of the visual arts. For Lippard, the result was the basis upon which to judge a work of art, not the processes behind it, or technical failures. See Lucy R. Lippard, "Total Theatre," Art International, January 20, 1967, p.39. See also Simone Whitman, "Theater and Engineering - An Experiment," Artforum, February 1967, pp.26-33.

62 Douglas Davis, Art and The Future, New York  1973, pp.68, 72.

63 Gyorgy Kepes, "The Visual Arts and the Sciences: A Proposal for Collaboration," Daedalus, Vol.94, No.1, 1965, pp.117-133.

64 Billy Klüver, "The Artists' Expertise for Communal Planning," I.I.C Annual Conference 1977, Group Session V: Art and Technology, September 1977, EAT Proceedings, No. 13, December 1977, n.p.

65 Suzanne Ramljek, "Interview: Billy Klüver," Sculpture, May/June 1991, p.34.

66 From the E.A.T. "manifesto," signed by Billy Klüver and Robert Rauschenberg, EAT News, Vol. 1, No.2 (June 1, 1967), front page. Experiments in Art and Technology published a regular newsletter, EAT News, to keep its membership informed about the activities. After the fifth issue, which was published in March 1968 (edition 10,000), E.A.T. decided to change formats. From then on a bulletin, entitled E.A.T. Operations and Information, appeared several times a year, listing and describing its services. It was followed by TECHNE: A Projects and Process Paper, which was to present "projects, processes, and physical problems and the opportunities presented by the relationship between rapidly expanding technology and the individual." All completed projects, lectures, talks, listings etc. were well documented and reported in what were called the Proceedings of E.A.T. The Proceedings describe the initial, fast growth of the organization between 1967 and 1969. For a general chronological survey, see Marga Bijvoet, "How Intimate Can Art and Technology really be? - A Survey of the Art and Technology Movement,"in: Culture, Technology and Creativity in the late twentieth century, ed. by Philip Hayward, London, Paris, Rome 1991, pp.15-37.

67 Documented in E.A.T.Proceedings, No.9, May 19, 1969.

68 E.A.T. Proceedings, No.9, May 1969, p.7; EAT News, Vol. 1, No.3, November 1, 1967, listing of Board of Directors and Council of Agents.

69 Maurice Tuchman, ed., A Report on the Art and Technology Program, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles 1971, p.9. Writer Jane Livingston evaluated the project and expressed her doubt about longer-lasting future collaborations: Jane Livingston, "Thoughts on Art and Technology," A Report, pp. 43-47. However, the report relates that those artists who were able to strike up a good personal relationship with the collaborating engineer or scientist were happiest about the whole project, where the interdisciplinary collaboration, the production as a team effort, became part of the total experience of the work.

70 Billy Klüver, "Remarks by Billy Klüver," EAT News, Vol. 1, No.3, (November 1, 1967), n.p.

71 See TECHNE, Vol.1, No.2, November 6, 1970, front page, and EAT News.

72 When E.A.T. was approached by Pontus Hultén with a request to provide works for his exhibition The Machine as Seen at the End of the Mechanical Age (Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1968), it offered to sponsor a competition for the most inventive technical contribution by an engineer to a work of art produced in collaboration with an artist. The competition was announced on November 12, 1967 in the New York Times, Scientific American and fifteen technical journals. Hultén chose six for his exhibition, all the other works proposed were eventually exhibited at the Brooklyn Museum as Some More Beginnings and received remarkable coverage from the newspapers, television and magazines. See TECHNE, Vol.1, No.1, 1969, front page; Some More Beginnings, Brooklyn Museum of Art, Brooklyn, New York, 1969, and E.A.T. Proceedings, No.6, 1969.

73 The India project is briefly discussed by Robert Rauschenberg in Douglas Davis, "Robert Rauschenberg: Technology as Nature," Art and the Future, New York  1973, pp.142-143 Also in:Billy Klüver, "The Artists' Expertise for Communication Planning," lecture presented at the I(nternational) I(nstitute) of C(ommunication) Annual Conference 1977, Group Session V: Art and Technology. Published as E.A.T. Proceedings, No.13, December 15, 1977.

74 Douglas Davis, "Robert Rauschenberg: Technology as Nature," Art and the Future, New York 1973, p.144.

75 For a background history of the Pavilion: Billy Klüver, "The Pavilion," Pavilion, by Experiments in Art and Technology, ed. Billy Klüver, Julie Martin and Barbara Rose, New York 1972, p.ix (pp.ix-xvi) Also: TECHNE, Vol.1, No.2, November 6, 1970, front page, p.2. There was a little booklet which did not seem to do justice to the expenditure that went into this extravaganza and supposedly prestigious project., published as E.A.T.Proceedings, No.8, March 25, 1970.

76 Nilo Lindgren, "Into the Collaboration," Pavilion, New York 1972,  p.10.

77 In addition, there was a program of performances, music and dance. Participating performers included now well-known artists: dancer Remy Charlip, performance artist Alan Kaprow, composer-musicians Alvin Lucier, Terry Riley, Pauline Oliveros, David Tudor, La Monte Young and Marion Zazeela.

78 There was already an interdisciplinary group of artists, scientists, writers , who were interested in the possible relationships between art and technology, meeting in Los Angeles before Experiments in Art and Technology was founded, and who gathered on a regular basis. This is not mentioned anywhere, neither in the Pavilion book, nor in the catalogue of the Art and Technology Program, and deserves further attention. I am grateful to Joan Hugo, who also participated in this program, for bringing this to my attention.

79 Jack Burnham, "Art and Technology: The Panacea that Failed," Video Culture, ed. John G. Hanhardt, Rochester, NY 1986, pp.232-248. From Calvin Tomkins we learn that Donald M. Kendall, President of PepsiCo Inc., was actually persuaded to put E.A.T. in charge of the Pepsi-Cola Pavilion at Expo '70. "Klüver and his colleagues were ejected from the premises, and E.A.T.'s relations with big business went into a precipitous decline." In: Calvin Tomkins, "Outside Art," Pavilion, New York 1972, pp.105-165.

80 Billy Klüver, "The Pavilion," Pavilion, New York 1972, p.ix.

81 Billy Klüver, "The Pavilion," Pavilion, New York 1972, p.xv.

82 Calvin Tomkins, "Outside Art," Pavilion, New York 1972, p.162.

83 Jack Burnham, "Art and Technology: The Panacea that Failed," Video Culture, Rochester, NY 1986, p.236.

84 Selected articles about the CAVS and its activities: Jane H. Kay, "Art and Science on the Charles," Art in America, Summer 1967, pp.62-67; Jud Yalkut, "Conversations with Gyorgy Kepes," Arts Magazine, May 1970, p.16-18.

85 Gyorgy Kepes, "The Lost Pageantry of Nature," Artscanada, December 1968, p.32.

86 Douglas M. Davis, "Conversations with Gyorgy Kepes, Billy Klüver and James Seawright," Art in America, January/February 1968, p.38-40.

87 Gyorgy Kepes, "The Lost Pageantry in Nature," Artscanada, December 1968, p.33.

88 See fn.12 in Gyorgy Kepes MIT Years 1947-1977, Cambridge, Mass. 1978.

89 Gyorgy Kepes, "The Lost Pageantry in Nature," Artscanada, December 1968, pp.31-32.

90 Douglas Davis, "Conversations with Gyorgy Kepes, Billy Klüver and James Seawright," Art in America, Jan/Feb 1968, p.39. See Boston Celebrations, Jubilee Projects by the Fellows of the Center for Advanced Visual Studies at MIT, March 18-April 29, Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston 1975, p.34.

91 For a listing of the proposals see Boston Harbor Project, 1968-70, CAVS/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1968.

92 Jonathan Benthall, "Kepes Center at MIT," Art International, Vol. XIX/1 January 1975, pp.28-49.

93 Douglas Davis, Art and the Future, New York 1973, p.115.

94 obsolete

95 Most of the works had been conceived for the Sao Paulo Biennial, in 1969. The American artists withdrew their contributions at the last moment in support of the protest of their Brazilian colleagues against the militaristic government then. In: Jud Yalkut, "Sao Paulo, No! Smithsonian, Yes!," Arts Magazine, May 1970, pp.16-18.

96  Arttransition, (October 15-19) University Film Study Center, CAVS/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1975. In the introduction, "Arttransition," Piene laid down his ideas about the future directions of the CAVS.  Lowry Burgess' project went through various stages of execution, which he explained later on. In: Lowry Burgess, "Art and Science Project: 'Waiting-for-Light-Planes'," Leonardo, Vol.7, No.4, 1974, pp.329-331.

97 obsolete

98 obsolete

99 Recently the Center for Advanced Visual Studies has presented a survey of its activities since its inception in Karlruhe, Germany. For a full listing of CAVS exhibitions, see Otto Piene und das CAVS, Badischer Kunstverein, Karlsruhe 1988.

100 Jonathan Benthall, "Kepes Center at MIT," Art International, Vol.19, No.1, 1975,  pp.30, 31.

101 Emily Wasserman, "Explorations - toward a civic art," Artforum, June 1970, pp.87-88 Also: Gyorgy Kepes, "Toward Civic Art," Explorations, Smithsonian Institution, National Gallery of Fine Arts, Washington D.C. 1970, n.p.

102 Jack Burnham, "Art and Technology: The Panacea that Failed," Video Culture, Rochester NY 1986, p.241.

103 Emily Wasserman, "Explorations - toward a civic art," Artforum, June 1970, pp.87-88.

104 The only writer who seriously wrote about the "artist as ecologist" in the early seventies was Gene Youngblood. Although such topics like environmental design, environmental landscape gardening and such were much discussed in the respective disciplines and professional magazines, there was no mention of them in the major art publications. Gene Youngblood, "World Game: the artist as ecologist," Artscanada, August 1970, pp. 42-49 and "Buckminster Fuller's World Game," Whole Earth Catalog, March 1970.

105 obsolete

106 Frank Popper, Art - action and participation, New York 1975, pp.210-211.

107 Tom Stonier, Information and the Internal Structure of the Universe, London 1990.

108 Steward Brand, The Media Lab: Inventing the Future at MIT, Penguin Publishers, Harmondsworth 1987, p.79; Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind, Ballantine, New York 1972

109 Steward Brand, The Media Lab: Inventing the Future at MIT, Harmondsworth 1987, pp.150-151.

111 Gene Youngblood, "The Open Empire," Studio International, April 1970, pp.177-178.

112 Jane Livingston, "Thoughts on Art and Technology," A Report  on the Art and Technology Program, Los Angeles 1971, p.47.

113 Burnham adopted the still prevalent theoretical ideas of Shannon & Weaver's (mathematical) Information Theory concerning the measurement of the amount of information contained in a message: "The objective of Software is to stress the fact that information is simply a measure of response between sender and receiver," and connected them with ideas about art as an information system: art as message. See Jack Burnham, "Notes on Art and Information Processing," Software, Information Technology: Its New Meaning for Art, Jewish Museum, New York 1970, p.13.

114 Bitite Vinklers, "Art and Information," Arts Magazine, September-October 1970, p.47, 49. Also: Thomas B. Hess, "Gerbils ex Machina," Art News, December 1970, p.73.

115 Among the 'conceptual/idea' artists invited were Vito Acconci, David Antin, Lawrence Wiener, John Baldessari, Douglas Huebler, Joseph Kosuth, Robert Barry, John Giorno, and Allan Kaprow.

116 Hans Haacke, in Software, Information Technology: Its New meaning For Art, New York 1970, p.34. Due to technical failures Haacke was not able to execute the work. It was not until Documenta 5, in 1972, that he finally saw the piece realized.

117 Theodor Nelson/Ned Woodman, "Labyrinth: An Interactive Catalogue," in Software, Information Technology: Its New meaning For Art, New York 1970, p.18.

118 Nicolas Negroponte, "The Architecture Machine Group, MIT," in Software, Information Technology: Its New meaning For Art, New York 1970, p.23.

119 Jonathan Benthall, Science and Technology in Art Today, London 1972, p.84.

120 The organizing committee wanted the exhibition to move beyond the Cybernetic Serendipity exhibition (ICA, London 1969), to address in part the changes in "personal and social sensibilities altered by this revolution," and it was decided to start from the notion of software. The term software was extensively defined in the catalogue, but its application was heavily criticized even before the show opened. In: Robert Mallory, "Notes on Jack Burnham's Concepts of a Software Exhibition," Leonardo, Vol.3, No.2, 1970, pp.189-190.

121 For the small list of articles in art periodicals, published in the late sixties/early seventies, see Cynthia Goodman, Digital Visions, New York 1987.

122 Albert Einstein, The World as I See It, New York 1934, p.65.

123 Stephen W.Hawking, A Brief History of Time, Bantam Book, New York 1988, pp.55-56.

124 Erwin Schrödinger tried to visualize the paradox implied in Heisenberg's Uncerntainty Principle with a thought experiment that became known as 'Schrödinger's Cat'.

125 John Gribbin, In Search of Schrödinger's Cat. Quantum Physics and Reality, Wildwood Housw, London 1984, Corgi Books, paperback ed. pp. 151-152.

126 Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "The History and Development of General System Theory," Perspectives on General System Theory, George Braziller, New York 1974.

127 Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory, George Braziller, New York 1968, p. 37, and "The History and Development of General System Theory," Perspectives on General System Theory, 1974, p.154.

128 Thomas Kuhn had defined the scientific developments of the twentieth century as a major shift in paradigm. "If science is the constellation of facts, theories, and methods collected in current texts, then scientists are the men who, successfully or not, have striven to contribute one or another element to that particular constellation". In: T.S.Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago 1970, p.1.

129 Max Planck, Where is Life Going?, London 1933, p.24.

130 Jack Burnham, "The Aesthetics of Intelligent Systems," On the Future, New York 1970, p.111.

131 Jack Burnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture, p.11.

132 Jonathan Benthall criticized: "To read Burnham on vitalist or biomorphic sculpture is to be reminded that there is no apparent correlation between the stature of a given artist and the validity of his scientific assumptions. The discontinuities between science and modern art are as interesting as their interaction." In: Jonathan Benthall, "The prehistory of the invisible," Studio International, November 1969, p.152.

133 Jack Burnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture, New York 1968, p.369.

134 Jack Burnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture, New York 1968, p.369.

135 Burnham adopted the still prevalent theoretical ideas of Shannon & Weaver's (mathematical) Information Theory concerning the measurement of the amount of information contained in a message: "The objective of Software is to stress the fact that information is simply a measure of response between sender and receiver", and connected them with ideas about art as an information system: art as message. See Jack Burnham, "Notes on Art and Information Processing", Software, Information Technology: Its New Meaning for Art, Jewish Museum New York, 1970, p.13.

136 Michael Fried, "Art and Objecthood," Artforum, Summer 1967, pp.12-23.

137 Jack Burnham, "Systems Esthetics," Artforum, September 1968, p.32.

138 Ibid. p.34. Also: Jack Burnham, "Real Time Systems," Artforum, September 1969, pp.49-55.

139 Ibid. pp. 32, 35.

140 Jack Burnham, "Notes on Art and Information Processing," Software, Information Technology: Its New Meaning for Art, New York 1970,  pp.10-14.

141 Jack Burnham, "The Aesthetics of Intelligent Systems," On the Future of Art, New York 1970, p.121.

142 Jack Burnham, "Art and technology: The Panacea That Failed," Video Culture, Rochestter NY 1986, p.245.

143 Robert Smithson, "Quasi-Infinities and the Waning of Space," Arts Magazine, November 1966, pp. 28-31.

144 Paul Ryan: "Cybernetic guerilla warfare... because the tool of portable video is a cybernetic extension of man and because cybernetics is the only language of intelligence and power that is ecologically viable." It is concerned with asking the right questions about "how does power function, ... how is this system of communication maintained," what information is habitually withheld and how," etc. In: Paul Ryan, "Cybernetic Guerilla Warfare," Radical Software, No.3, Spring 1971, pp.1-2.

145 Paul Ryan, "Cable Television: The Raw and the Overcooked," Radical Software, No.1, Summer 1970, p. 12.

146 Nam June Paik, "Norbert Wiener and Marshall McLuhan," Institute of Contemporary Arts Bulletin, London 1967. Reprinted in: Nam June Paik, Videa 'n' Videology, Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse, NY 1974, pp.27-29 and pp.24-25.

147 Peter Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity,  London 1969, p.250.

148 Michael Shamberg, Radical Software, No. 6, 1971, p.1.

149 Radical Software, No. 2, cover.

150 Michael Shamberg, "Guerilla Television - Media America," Radical Software, No.6, 1971, p.13.

151 Michael Shamberg, "Guerilla Television - Media America," Radical Software, No.6, 1971, p.26.

152 Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Community, London 1995.

153 Leonardo, Vol.1, No.1, editorial page.

154 Leonardo, Vol.16, No.1, 1983, p.i.

155 Leonardo, Vol.16, No.2, 1983, pp.i-iii.

157 Jeanne Siegel, "An Interview with Hans Haacke," Arts Magazine, May 1971, p.18.

158 For an extensive description of his "systems method," see Edward F. Fry, Hans Haacke Werkmonographie, Cologne 1972, pp.32-35.

159 Hans Haacke, in Earth Art, Andrew Dickson White Museum of Art, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 1969, n.p.

160 Jack Burnham, "Systems Esthetics," Artforum, September 1968, p.35.

161 Jeanne Siegel, "An Interview with Hans Haacke," Arts Magazine, May 1971, p.18. Also: John Noel Chandler, "Hans Haacke: The Continuity of Change," Artscanada, June 1969, pp.8-11.

162 For an explanatory description of ZERO's intentions, see Otto Piene & Heinz Mack, ZERO,  Cologne 1958. (English translation by H.Beckman, 1973)

163 Jeanne Siegel, "An Interview with Hans Haacke," Arts Magazine, May 1971, p.19.

164 Jeanne Siegel, "An Interview with Hans Haacke," Arts Magazine, May 1971, p.18.

165 Howard Wise Gallery in New York actively supported kinetic art forms in the sixties. Wise was also among the first to register the transformations in technology-based art forms. Already in 1965 he showed computer graphic works, and in 1969 he premiered the first works made with video, TV As A Creative Medium (New York 1969).

166 For Haacke's documentation of the project see Edward F. Fry, Hans Haacke: Werkmonographie, Cologne 1972, pp.55-70.

167 Hans Haacke, "Visitors' profile: a statistical breakdown of spectators," Software, Information Technology: Its New meaning For Art, New York 1970,  p.34.

168 All quotes are from Howard S. Becker, & John Walton, "Social Science and the Work of Hans Haacke," Framing and Being Framed. 7 Works 70-75, Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, Halifax 1975, pp.145-152. One later article on the subject appeared in Kunstforum: Astrid Wick-Kmoch, "Kunst + Systemtheorie + Sozialwissenschaften: Zu den Arbeiten von Hans Haacke," Kunstforum International, Bd.27 (1978), pp.125-142.

169 Benjamin H.D. Buchloh, "Hans Haacke: Memory and Instrumental Reason," Art in America, February 1988, pp.97-107, pp.157-159; Fredric Jameson, "Hans Haacke and the Cultural Logic of Postmodernism," Hans Haacke: Unfinished Business, Museum of Contemporary Art, New York & MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.1986, pp.42-43; Yve-Alain Bois, Douglas Crimp and Rosalind Krauss, "A Conversation with Hans Haacke," October, 30, Fall 1984, pp.49-81.

170 Hans Haacke, "Museums, Managers and Consciousness," Art museums and big business, edited by Ian North, Art Museums Association of Australia, Kingston 1984, pp.33-40, reprinted in Hans Haacke: Unfinished Business, Museum of Contemporary Art, New York & MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1986, pp.60-73.

171 Quoted from a text written by Hans Haacke for the catalog of the 45th Biennale di Venezia, Venice 1993, p.173.

173 Lawrence Alloway, "Robert Smithson's Development," Artforum, November 1972, p.54. A few writers have related Robert Smithson's work to a systems approach, possibly because the artist never referred to his work in this manner and also because he actually criticized Jack Burnham's definitions of a système d'art. See Anthony Robbin, "Smithson's Non-site Sights," Art News, February 1969, pp.50-53.

174 Robert Hobbs, Robert Smithson: Sculpture, Ithaca & London 1981.

175 Robert Smithson: "Some Void Thoughts on Museums," Arts Magazine, February 1967, p.41. Smithson: "What is needed is an esthetic method that brings together anthropology and linguistics in terms of 'buildings.' This would put an end to 'art-history' as sole criterion. Art at the present is confined by a dated notion, namely 'art as criticism of earlier art.'" In: Robert Smithson, "Towards the Development of An Air Terminal Site," Artforum, Summer Issue, June 1967, p.35.

176 Smithson referred to linguist/philosopher Alfred Ayer. "Recently, there has been an attempt to formulate an analog between 'communication theory' and the ideas of physics in terms of entropy. As A.J. Ayer has pointed out, not only do we communicate what is true, but also what is false. Often the false has a greater 'reality' than the true. Therefore it seems that all information, and that includes anything that is visible, has its entropic side. Falseness, as an ultimate, is inextricably a part of entropy, and this falseness is devoid of moral implications." In: Robert Smithson, "Entropy and the New Monuments," Artforum, June 1966, p.29.

177 Claude E. Shannon, "A Mathematical Theory of Information," Bell System Technical Journal, No.27, 1948, pp.379-432, pp.632-656.

178 "Entropy made visible," Interview with Alison Sky, On Site, #4, 1973. Quoted from The Writings, p.190.

179 George Kubler, The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things, New Haven, CT 1962.

180 Robert Smithson was an avaricious reader, with multiple interests, as his references and the collection of books in his library show. There is an unpublished manuscript of Robert Smithson's library, c. 1974, compiled by writer/critic Valentine Tatransky, on file at the Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.

181 Paul Cummings, "Interview with Robert Smithson for the Archives of American Art/Smithsonian Institute," The Writings, p.156.

182 Quoted from: "..The Earth, subject to Cataclysms, is a Cruel Master," Interview with Gregoire Mueller, Arts Magazine, November 1972, p.181.

183 Robert Smithson, "Entropy and the New Monuments," Artforum, June 1966, p.26.

184 Physicist Erwin Schrödinger had already considered the statistical meaning of entropy, in his book What is Life? (1944), following upon Ludwig Boltzmann's investigations. Ludwig Boltzmann described the processes during the melting of crystals: [you] "destroy the neat and permanent arrangement of the atoms and molecules and turn the crystal lattice into a continually changing random distribution." In: Tom Stonier, Information and the Internal Structure of the Universe, New York 1990, p.37.

185 "I was still working with the resolution of the organic and the crystalline, and that seemed resolved in dialectics for me. And so I created the dialectic of site and nonsite. The nonsite exists as a kind of deep three-dimensional map that points to a specific site of the earth. And that's designated by a kind of mapping procedure." In: Paul Cummings, "Interview with Robert Smithson for the Archives of American Art/Smithsonian Institution," The Writings, p.155.

186 Robert Hobbs, Robert Smithson: Sculpture, Ithaca & London 1981, p.62. The artist discussed his ideas about crystallography extensively for the first time in an article about Donald Judd. "Donald Judd," in 7 Sculptors, Institute of Contemporary Art, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 1965. Reprinted in The Writings, p.22.

187 William C. Lipke, "Fragments of a Conversation," The Writings, pp.168-170.

188 See also Robert Hobbs, Robert Smithson: Sculpture, Ithaca & London 1981, p.79.

189 Robert Smithson had in his library J.E. Cirlot's Dictionary of Symbols, in which all the symbolic meanings of the spiral are described.

190 Smithson made a number of works in which he questioned the Renaissance perspective as an absolute truth in depicting space. The Enantiomorphic Chambers (1965) were two steel structures which were to hold mirrors placed at oblique angles, so that the viewer standing in front of the mirrors would see reflections of reflections. "This negates any central vanishing point, and takes one physically to the other side of the double mirrors. It is as though one were being imprisoned by the actual structure of two alien eyes." In: Robert Smithson, "Interpolation of the Enantiomorphic Chambers," The Writings, p.39.

191 Robert Smithson, "The Spiral Jetty," The Writings, pp.109-116.

192 Robert Smithson, "Frederick Law Olmsted and the Dialectical Landscape," Artforum, February 1973, p.65.

193 Robert Smithson, "Toward the Development of An Air Terminal Site," Artforum, Summer Issue 1967, p.37.

194 "My own experience is that the best sites for 'earth art' are sites that have been disrupted by industry, reckless urbanization, or nature's own devastation. For instance the Spiral Jetty is built in a dead sea, and The Broken Circle and Spiral Hill (NL-Emmen 1970) in a working quarry." In: Robert Smithson, "Frederick Law Olmsted and the Dialectical Landscape," 1973. Reprinted in The Writings, pp.119, 124.

195 Robert Smithson, The Writings, pp.220-221.

196 Among the corporations he approached were Hanna Coal Company, Ohio Reclamation Association (Ohio), Peabody Coal, Bingham Copper Mine (Utah), Minerals Engineering Company (Colorado).

197 Robert Hobbs, Robert Smithson: Sculpture, Ithaca & London 1981, p.219.

198 Calvin Tomkins, "Onward and Upward with the Arts," The New Yorker, 47, No.51, February 5, 1972, p.55.

200 See Lucy R. Lippard, Overlay: Contemporary Art and the Art of Prehistory, New York 1983; John Beardsley, Probing the Earth: Contemporary Land Projects, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. 1977; pp. 32-35 and pp. 66-70; Marga J. Bijvoet, "In Search of Self through Nature: Art Experiments in the California Deserts," Arts and Architecture, Winter 1983, pp.40-43.

201 Bonnie Sherk, quoted in: Ruth Iskin, "The Fine Art of Social Change," Social Works, LAICA, Los Angeles, 1979, p.10.

202 On the maze, see Ronald Onorato, "The Modern Maze," Art International, April/May 1976, pp.21-25; Hermann Kern, "Labyrinths: Tradition and Contemporary Works," Artforum, May 1981, pp.60-68; On gardens and pathways see Lucy R. Lippard, "Gardens:Some Metaphors for a Public Art," Art in America, November 1981, pp.136-150.

203 During the latter half of the sixties there was also in Los Angeles the tendency to move away from the solid art object. A small group of artists here had a special interest in investigating the characteristics of light and light phenomena: Larry Bell, Robert Irwin, Eric Orr, Maria Nordman, Douglas Wheeler, and James Turrell. Before turning to sound installations, Michael Brewster's works were pieces of flickering light bulbs, which he placed in different configurations in the Mojave Desert (California).

204 The symposium took place in the former Malinda Wyatt Gallery on Market Street, Venice, California. See Jane Livingston, A Report on the Art and Technology Program, Los Angeles 1971, pp. 140-142. See also a more recent publication on the subject by Jan Butterfield, Art of Light and Spaces, New York 1993.

205 James Turrell, Light Projections and Light Spaces, Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam 1976.

206 Graig Adcock, "Light, Space, Time: The Visual Parameters of the Roden Crater," Occluded Front: James Turrell, Los Angeles 1985, pp. 101-135.  Also: Graig Adcock, James Turrell: The Art of Light and Space, Berkeley/Los Angeles, 1992.

207 Janet Saad-Cook, "Touching the Sky: Artworks using Natural Phenomena, Earth, Sky and Connections to Astronomy," Leonardo, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1988, p.129; Graig Adcock, "Anticipating 19,084: James Turrell's Roden Crater Project," Arts Magazine, May 1984, pp.76-85.

208 Krupp studied the astronomy of ancient peoples. See E.C. Krupp, ed., In Search of Ancient Astronomics, Garden City, NY 1977.

209 James Turrell: "...Roden Crater has knowledge in it, and it does something with that knowledge. Environmental events occur; a space lights up. Something happens in there, for a moment, or for a time. It is an eye, something that is itself perceiving. It is a piece that does not end. It is changed by the action of the sun, the moon, the cloud cover, by the day and the season that you're there...and it keeps changing. When you're there, it has visions, qualities, and a universe of possibilities." In: Graig Adcock, "Light, Space, Time: The Visual Parameters of the Roden Crater," Occluded Front: James Turrell, Los Angeles 1985, p.130.

210 Janet Saad-Cook, "Touching the Sky: Artworks using Natural Phenomena, Earth, Sky and Connections to Astronomy," Leonardo, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1988, p.127.

211 Nancy Holt, "Stone Enclosure: Rock Rings, 1977-78," Arts Magazine, June 1979, pp.152, 153. Other publications by the artist: "Hydra's Head," Arts Magazine, January 1975, pp.57-59; "Pine Barrens," Avalanche, Summer 1975, p.6; "Sun Tunnels," Artforum, April 1977, pp.32-37; Ransacked, Printed matter, Inc., New York 1980; "Pipeline," in: Alaskan Impressions, Anchorage, AL 1986.

212 Janet Saad-Cook, "Touching the Sky: Artworks using Natural Phenomena, Earth, Sky and Connections to Astronomy," Leonardo, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1988, p.127.

213 Nancy Holt,  in: Art in America, February 1991, p.79.

214 As these projects grow in size, so are the costs. The $600,000 range is by no means uncommon for the design of a park landscape now. In the past the costs of her projects ranged from a mere $200 for Polar Circle (Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, 1979) - which was built from found poles and army surplus chain, while students assisted with the construction, - to $50,000 - $100,000. It shows how different the production of this type of work is from that of the painter in his studio.

215 Barbara C. Matilsky, Fragile Ecologies, Contemporary Artists' Interpretations and Solutions,  New York 1992, pp.90-91.

217 See John Coplans, Robert Irwin, Pasadena 1968, n.p.; Jan Butterfield, "Part I. The State of the Real: Robert Irwin discusses the Activities of an Extended Concsiousness," Arts Magazine, June 1972, pp.47-49.

218 obsolete

219 The last Time I saw Ferus: 1957-1966, Newport Beach, CA 1976.

220 Roberta Smith, "Robert Irwin: The Subject is Sight," Art in America, March/April 1976, p.72.

221 Ira Licht, "Robert Irwin," Robert Irwin, Chicago 1975, n.p.

222 The retrospective at The Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles was not without contradictions, Irwin admittted, and in fact totally inconsistent with his current theories and works.

223 1. Site dominant. This work embodies the classical tenets of permanence, transcendent and historical content, meaning and purpose; the art-object either rises out of, or is the occasion for, its "ordinary" circumstances - monuments, historical figures, murals, etc. 2. Site adjusted. Such work compensates for the modern development of the levels of meaning-content having been reduced to terrestrial dimensions (even abstraction). Here consideration is given to adjustments of scale, appropriateness, placement, etc. But the 'work of art' is still either made or conceived in the studio... 3. Site specific. Here the 'sculpture' is conceived with the site in mind; the site sets the parameters and is, in part, the reason for the sculpture. This process takes the initial step towards sculpture's being integrated into its surroundings. But our process of recognition and understanding of 'the work of art' is still keyed to the oeuvre of the artist. 4. Site conditioned/determined. Here the sculptural response draws all of its cues (reasons for being) from its surroundings. This requires the process to begin with an intimate hands-on reading of the site. This means sitting, watching, and walking through the site, the surrounding areas... In: Robert Irwin, Being and Circumstance, San Francisco 1985, pp.26-28.

224 Robert Irwin, Being and Circumstance, San Francisco 1985, pp.26-28.

225 Robert Irwin, in: Robert Irwin,  Los Angeles / New York 1993, p.20.

226 Lawrence Weschler, Seeing is Forgetting the Name of the Thing One Sees: A Life of Contemporary Artist Robert Irwin, Berkeley/ Los Angeles 1982, p.130-1.

227 Robert Campbell & Jeffrey Cruikshank, "Art in Architecture," Designing the Wiesner Building, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. (n.d.), p.86.

228 Lawrence Weschler, "Playing It As It Lays & Keeping It In Play: A Visit with Robert Irwin," Robert Irwin, Los Angeles / New York 1993, p.159.

229 Ibid. Robert Irwin, p.151.

230 Ibid., Robert Irwin, "The Hidden Structure of Art," p.35.

233 obsolete

234 Jonathan Benthall, "Haacke, Sonfist and Nature," Studio International, March 1971, pp.95-96.

235 Alan Sonfist, in: Elements: Earth, Air, Fire, Water, Boston 1971, p.54.

236 obsolete

237 Michael Auping, "Interview with Alan Sonfist," Common Ground: Five Artists in the Florida Landscape, Sarasota FL 1982, p.134.

238 Alan Sonfist, in: Multiple Interaction Team,  Cambridge, Mass. 1972, n.p.

239 Robert Joseph Horvitz, "Nature as Artifact: Alan Sonfist," Artforum, November 1973, p.32.

240 Robert Joseph Horvitz, "Nature as Artifact: Alan Sonfist," Artforum, November 1973, p.33.

241 Statement published with the exhibition of Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances Landscapes, Paley and Lowe Gallery, New York 1972.

242 Alan Sonfist, Natural Phenomena as Public Monuments, Purchase, NY 1978, p.2.

243 Michael Auping, "Interview with Alan Sonfist," Common Ground: Five Artists in the Florida Landscape, Sarasota FL 1982, p.134.

244 Michael Heizer, Effigi Tumuli: The Reemergence of Ancient Mound Building, New York 1990.

245 Alan Sonfist, Multiple Interaction Team, n.p.

246 Alan Sonfist, Natural Phenomena as Public Monuments, Purchase NY 1978, p.5.

247  Jeffrey Deitsch, "The New Economics of Environmental Art," Art in the Land, edited by Alan Sonfist, New York 1983, p.90.

248 Alan Sonfist, in: Multiple Interaction Team, Cambridge Mass. 1972, n.p.

249 Ken Johnson, "Alan Sonfist at Ledisflam," Art in America, January 1992, p.109.

250 Peter Birmingham, Alan Sonfist's Trees. Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., 1978, n.p.

251 Jack Burnham wrote of Sonfist's work very aptly and succinctly: "He sees 'sculpture' in the ecological exchanges that occur every day and believes that man-nature stability will come only when we have become acutely sensitive to the natural changes around us." In: Jack Burnham, "Art and Technology," Britannica Yearbook of Science and the Future, Chicago, 1973, p.351.

252 Alan Sonfist, Natural Phenomena as Public Monuments, Purchase NY 1978, p.8.

253 The Report mentions the background of this interest at length. See A Report on the Art and Technology Program, Los Angeles 1971, p.118.

254 Gail Scott, "Newton Harrison," ibid. p.122.

255 Graig Adcock, "Conversational Drift: Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison," Art Journal, Summer 1992, pp.36-36.

256 Michael Auping, "Interview with Helen and Newton Harrison," Common Ground: Five Artists in the Florida Landscape, Sarasota FL 1982,  p.42 .

257 Jonathan Benthall, "Newton Harrison: big fish in small pool," Studio International, December 1971, p.230.

258 Kay Larson, "Watering Wholes," Village Voice, April 14, 1980, p.78.

259 An ecosystem is defined as: "A system...of interacting subsystems which persists through time due to the interaction of its components. The system possesses a definable organization, temporal continuity and functional properties which can be viewed as distinctive to a system rather that its components...a system is specified as a complex unit in which the components interact to preserve the system and restore it following non-destructive disturbances." In: W.H. van Dobben & R.H. Lowe-McConnell, Unifying Concepts in Ecology: Report of the Plenary Sessions of the First International Congress of Ecology, The Hague, September 8-14, 1974, pp.27-28.

260 Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison, The Lagoon Cycle, Herbert F. Johnson Museum, Cornell University, Ithaca & New York 1985.

261 Kay Larson, "Watering Wholes," Village Voice, April 14, 1980, p.78.

262 Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison, "Shifting Positions toward the Earth and Environmental Awareness," Leonardo, Vol. 26, No. 5, 1993, pp.374.

263 Michael Auping, "Helen and Newton Harrison," Common Ground: Five Artists in the Florida Landscape, Sarasota FL 1982, p.45.

264 Grace Glueck, "Art People: 'The Earth is Their Palette'," New York Times, 4 April, 1980, sect. C, p.24.

265 obsolete

266 Later on Newton Harrison wrote in defense of Portable Fish Farm that "it was first conceived to sit outdoors. It used earth and water pastures with minimal support systems. Lack of time and funding problems reduced it exclusively for the indoor gallery." In: Newton Harrison, "Sea Grant second narrative and two precedent works," Studio International, May 1974, p.237.

267 Critic Kristine Stiles heavily criticized the artists for their presentation of the Meditations on the Condition of the Sacramento River, the Delta, and the Bays of San Francisco, stating that they "neglected to establish a network of communication feedback and tabulation which would measure and thus ensure the work's effectiveness in the San Francisco community.." In: Kristine Stiles, "Helen and Newton Harrison: Questions," Arts Magazine, February 1978, pp.131-133.

268 Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison, "Shifting Positions Toward the Earth: Art and Environmental Consciousness," Leonardo, Vol.26, No.5, 1993, p.375.

269 obsolete

270 From the brochure Guadelupe Meander, A Refugia for San Jose, San Jose, CA 1983.

271 Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison, "Shifting Positions Toward the Earth: Art and Environmental Consciousness," Leonardo, Vol.26, No.5, 1993, p.376.

272 Atempause für den Save Fluß, Die Summe seiner Geschichte, Beginn einer neuen Geschichte, Neuer Berliner Kunstverein in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Berliner Künstlerprogramm des DAAD, Berlin, Germany and Galerie Ljubljana, Slovenia, 1989.

273 Future Garden: Teil I. Die gefährdeten Wiesen Europas. Helen Mayer Harrison, Newton Harrison, and Harrison Studio, Kunst-und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Bonn 1996.

274 Newton Harrison and Helen Mayer Harrison, Tibet is the High Ground, (Del Mar), 1990, pp 1, 6. Selected finished projects 1996: Baltimore Promenade, Baltimore 1981; Devil's Gate Transformation: A Refuge for Pasadena, Pasadena, California,1987 (under construction); A Wetland Walk for Boulder Creek, Boulder, Colorado, 1987; Disappearing Path, Newport, California, 1988; San Diego Landfill, together with Martinez, Cutri and McArdle, San Diego, California,1992; California Wash, Santa Monica, California, 1996.

275 Graig Adcock, "Converational Drift: Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison," Art Journal, Summer 1992, pp.40-41, p.43.

276 Susan Platt, "Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison: An Urban Discourse," Artweek, May 21, 1983, p.1, backpage.

277 A listing of artists regularly working in this field would be rather extensive. Among the better-known currently creating permanent public works, and not discussed in this book, are Robert Basler, Carl Cheng, Michael Davis, Richard Fleischner, Ian Hamilton-Finley, Lloyd Hamrol, Hera, Mary Miss, Max Neuhaus, Claes Oldenburg/Coosje van Bruggen, Beverly Pepper, Elys Zimmerman.

278 Robert Irwin, Being and Circumstance, San Francisco 1985, p. 49.

279 Lloyd Hamrol: Works, Projects, Proposals, Interview with Lloyd Hamrol by Julia Brown Turrell,  Los Angeles 1986, p.49.

280 A few small and early reclamation projects should be mentioned. They were part of the Program in Visual Arts at Artpark, Lewiston, New York, which has invited artists-in-residence annually since 1974 during the summer months. Artists Charles Simonds (1975), Alan Sonfist (1975) and Helen and Newton Harrison (1977) worked here on projects reclaiming parts of a chemical dump site that belonged to the Artpark area. New York-based artist Charles Simonds created a Growth House (1975) on the same chemical dump site. The Growth House was a circular structure built from sacks of earth containing a large variety of seeds, which were to sprout at various times of the year, forming a complete life cycle of food-producing plants - grains, vegetables, fruits, herbs - throughout the year. And Alan Sonfist had used part of the spot for his Pool of Virgin Earth in the same year. Sonfist made a circular pool covered with virgin soil to catch seeds from neighboring areas and thus start the rebirth of a new forest. See Artpark: The Program in the Visual Arts, Lewiston, NY 1975, 1976, 1977.

281 Earthworks: Land Reclamation as Sculpture, Seattle, WA 1979, p.5.

282 See Earthworks: Land Reclamation As Sculpture - Technical Report, King County Arts Commission, Seattle, WA 1981, for a complete listing of funds and budgets.

283 Already in 1955, Herbert Bayer had created an Earth Mound and Marble Garden for the Aspen Institute of Humanistic Studies in Colorado, where he held a position. Although Robert Smithson is considered the contemporary theoretical father of this direction, Herbert Bayer and Isamu Noguchi, who have been proposing environmental works since 1933, are the actual forerunners of the current recultivation - landscaping trend. Apart from his sculptural works, Isamu Noguchi has designed numerous urban plazas with multiple functions.

284 Patricia Johanson, in: Fragile Ecologies: Contemporary Artists' Interpretations and Solutions, New York 1993, p.82.

285 Agnes Denes, "Environmental Artwork, Visual Philosophy and Global Perspective," Leonardo, Vol.26, No. 5, 1993, p.392.

286 Agnes Denes, "Environmental Artwork, Visual Philosophy and Global Perspective," Leonardo, Vol.26, No. 5, 1993, p.387. She has done environmentally oriented work since the seventies, at first mainly temporary, and has written about her concerns and visions in periodicals and books. See Agnes Denes, The Beginning and the End of Time and Thereafter, Rochester NY 1989.

287 Los Angeles Community Redevelopment Agency, Public Art Policy, Los Angeles 1993.

288 Marga Bijvoet, "Underground Spectacle in Los Angeles," Archis, No. 3, 1994, pp.72-80.

289 Douglas C. McGill, "Architect and Artists Collaborate on Battery Park City Plaza," New York Times, January 31, 1985, III, p.17.

290 Siah Armajani, statement in: Shaping the New Sculpture of the Street, a symposium, New York Times, September 22, 1985. Also: Ken Johnson, "Poetry & Public Service," Art in America, March 1990, pp.161-163, 219.

291 Howard Wise Gallery in New York (later on Electronic Arts Intermix) organized TV as a Creative Medium in 1969. In 1970, the Rose Art Museum, at Brandeis University (Waltham, MA) organized the first video exhibition Vision and Television. The Everson Museum of Art in Syracuse established a major center for video art for years to come, followed by the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and the Long Beach Museum of Art in Long Beach.

292 David Bienstock, program notes for A Special Videotape Show, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York 1971, n.p.

293 René‚ Berger, "Video and the Restructuring of Myth," The New Television: A Public / Private Eye, ed. Douglas Davis/Allison Simmons, Cambridge, Mass. 1978, pp.206-221.

294 Wulf Herzogenrath and Edith Decker, eds. Video Skulptur: retrospektiv und aktuell, Cologne 1989.

295 Nam June Paik, "New Projects 1972/73," Nam June Paik: Videa 'n' Videology (1959-1973), Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse NY 1974, p.75. This catalogue is still the most extensive resource for Paik's letters, documents, writings until 1973. It is supplemented by: Nam June Paik, Niederschriften eines Kulturnomaden, ed. Edith Decker, Cologne 1992.

296 James Harithas, "Introduction, "  Nam June Paik: Videa 'n' Videology (1959-1973), Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse NY 1974.

297 John Cage, Silence, Middletown, CT 1961, p.40.

298 Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Feuilleton, No. 280, 2.12.1961.

299 Nam June Paik, "Norbert Wiener and Marshall McLuhan," Institute of Contemporary Arts Bulletin, London 1972, No.3, p.3 ff. Reprinted in Nam June Paik: Videa 'n' Videology, Syracuse NY 1974, pp.7-9. In McLuhan's thesis all techniques and technologies were "extensions of man" and never neutral in their effects on the existing environment. The Gutenberg Galaxy (1961) and Understanding Media: the extensions of man (1964) were widely read. He was both hailed as the new spokesman of the electronic age and vehemently criticized., particularly by the scientific world, as his methods were hardly empirical. See Jonathan Miller, McLuhan, London 1971. Recently, Marshall McLuhan's ideas are going through some revaluation. In 1987 an edition of letters was published, and in 1988 his son Eric McLuhan published Laws of the Media, posthumously.

300 Jud Yalkut, "Art and Technology of Nam June Paik," Arts Magazine, April 1968, pp.50-51. See also Nam June Paik, "Simulation of Human Eyes by 4-Channel Stereo Video Taping," Nam June Paik: Videa 'n' Videology, Syracuse NY 1974, p.62.

>301 Nam June Paik, "Random Access Information," Artforum, December 1980, pp.46-49.

302 Jack Burnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture, New York 1968, pp.351-352 .

303 obsolete

304 obsolete

305 See for other "visionary" statements on the future of electronic communication systems, in the television era a letter to Radical Software, the "Binghamton Letter," January 8, 1972, reprinted in Nam June paik: Videa 'n' Videology, Syracuse NY 1974, pp.68-69; Nam June Paik, "Medienplanung für das nachindustrielle Zeitalter (1974) Bis zum 21.Jahrhundert sind es nur noch 26 Jahre," in: Nam June Paik, Werke 1946-1976, Musik-Fluxus-Video, Cologne 1976, p.159.

306 Nam June Paik, "New Projects 1972/73," Nam June Paik: Videa 'n' Videology, Syracuse NY 1974, p.76.

307 Nam June Paik, "Global Groove and Video Common Market," The WNET-TV Lab News, Issue #2, 1973 (written February 1970).

308 Nam June Paik, "Expanded Education for the Paperless Society,"  Nam June Paik: Videa 'n' Videology, Syracuse NY 1974, pp.31-37.

309 Nam June Paik, Nam June Paik: Videa 'n' Videology, Syracuse NY 1974, p.11.

310 Nam June Paik, Werke 1946-1976. Musik-Fluxus-Video, ed. Wulf Herzogenrath, Cologne 1976, pp.165-166.

311 Nam June Paik, in: Catalogue Biennale di Venezia, Venice 1993, pp.176-177.

312 Karl Mannheim, Ideologie und Utopie, Frankfurt 1969, pp.171 ff.

313 Leaflet: Café Au Go Go, 152 Bleecker Street - October 4 & 11 1965 - a preview of Paik's November show at the Bonino Gallery. Reprinted in Videa 'n' Videology, p.11.

314 Nam June Paik, "New Projects 1972/73," Nam June Paik: Videa 'n' Videology, Syracuse NY 1974, p.76.

315 "...e.g. Mike Noll (Bell Labs) last month c.cmpleted a 3-D figuration using the light pen, cathode ray tube, and medium sized computer. It can be useful for experimental art classes, may be for sculpture class, and drawing courses for engineering students and the teaching of solid geometry... I personally feel that high level applications like (Michael) Noll's and (Max) Mathew's programming would be more valuable, since it means the augmentation of new knowledge, and the creation of new art, whereas low level applications such as sight-singing, or ear-training is just a money saving in teaching yesterday's music..." In: Nam June Paik, "Expanded Education for the Paperless Society," Nam June Paik: Videa 'n' Videology, Syracuse NY 1974, pp.31-37. Paik knew Billy Klüver and his E.A.T. organization, and thus the way to Bell Laboratories was paved.

316 Jud Yalkut, "Art and Technology of Nam June Paik," Arts Magazine, April 1968, p.51.

317 obsolete

318 John G. Hanhardt, Nam June Paik, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York 1982.

319 "My obsession with TV for the past ten years has been, if I look back and think clearly, a steady progrssion towards more differentiated participation by viewers," he stated in the catalogue of the Sonsbeek exhibition. Nam June Paik, in: Sonsbeek 71, Arnhem, NL 1971, p.84.

320 Nam June Paik, "About the Exposition of Electronic Music," De-collage, 1962, No.3, n.p.

321 There is an evocative description by critic Tomas Schmitt in: "exposition of music," Nam June Paik, Werke 1946-1976 Musik-Fluxus-Video, Cologne 1976, p.68.

322 Douglas Davis, "Nam June Paik: The Cathode Ray Canvas," Art and the Future, New York 1973, pp.146-152.

323 "Participation TV II included three or four color TV sets which show multi-color echoes, or fog, or clouds which are electronically produced. Sometimes you can see yourself floating in air, dissolving in deep water," wrote Paik for the accompanying brochure. Howard Wise Gallery, TV as a Creative Medium, New York, Mai 17 - June 14, 1969, n.p.

324 David Antin analyzed the formal and sequential structure of the television image, its fixed and preset timing and pacing as applied by the American networks in detail in his article "Television: Video's Frightful Parent," Artforum, December 1975, pp.36-45.

325 David A. Ross, "Nam June Paik's Videotapes," in: Nam June Paik, New York 1982, pp.101-110.

326 Among the public television stations KCET-TV in San Francisco was the first on to open its doors to experiments by artists (1967) offering residencies for artists, followed by WGBH-TV in Boston (1968), where Stan VanderBeek was the first artist-in-residence. Nam June Paik became the second one.

327 Douglas Davis, "Nam June Paik: The Cathode Ray Canvas," Art and the Future, New York 1973, pp.146-154.

328 Edith Decker, Paik Video, Cologne 1988, pp.108-111.

329 Kenneth E. Silver, "Nam June Paik: video's body," Art in America, November 1993, p.105.

330 The whole program was shown later on in an exhibition organized by DAAD, in Berlin and was accompanied by an extensive catalogue, containing documentary information, essays, comments, and critiques about the program, titled: Art for 25 Million People, DAAD, Berlin 1984.

331 See for a description of Nam June Paik's videotapes, Edith Decker, Paik Video, 1988, David A.Ross, "Nam June Paik's Videotapes," Nam June Paik, 1982, pp.101-110; Bruce Kurtz, "Paikvision," Artforum, February 1982, pp.52-55.

333 Calvin Tomkins, "Video Visionary," The New Yorker, 5 May, 1975, p.45.

334 Raymond Bellour, "An Interview with Bill Viola," October, 34, Fall 1985, p.101.

335 Bill Viola, statement, Bill Viola, ARC Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, Paris 1983, p.4. Also: Bill Viola, "Video As Art," Video Systems, July 1982, pp. 26-35.

336 Michael Nash, "Bill Viola's Re-Visions of Mortality," High Performance, 37, 1987, p.63.

337 Bill Viola, "Excerpt from The Sound of One Line Scanning," 1986 National Video Festival, American Film Institute, Los Angeles 1986, p.40. Bill Viola's writings have been collected in: Reasons for Knocking at an Empty House: Writings 1973-1994, ed. Robert Violette in collaboration with the author. Cambridge, Mass. & London 1995.

338 Bill Viola, in Bill Viola, Paris 1983, p.31.

339 Marita Sturken, "The Videotapes of Bill Viola," Afterimage, Summer 1982, p.28.

340 Bill Viola, in: Bill Viola, New York 1987, p.37.

341 Taped interview with the artist, March 25, 1987.

342 Bill Viola, "Excerpt from The Sound of One Line Scanning,"  1986 National Video Festival,  Los Angeles 1986, p.43.

343 From "The Vasulkas," Cantrills Filmnotes, No. 13, April 1973.

344 Bill Viola, "Excerpt from the Sound of One Line Scanning," p.43.

345 Marie Luise Syring (ed.), Bill Viola: Unseen Images, Kunsthalle, Düsseldorf 1992.

346 Deirdre Boyle, "Interview of Bill Viola,"in: Bill Viola, Paris 1983, p.14.

347 Bill Viola, in Bill Viola. Buried Secrets, ed. Marilyn A. Zeitlin,  Tempe, AZ & Hannover, Germany, 1995, p.64.

348 Bill Viola, statement in Bill Viola, New York 1987, p.55.

349 Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, San Francisco p.37.

350 Michael Nash, "Bill Viola's Re-Visions of Morality," p.63.

351 The Rig Vedas were written in Sanskrit, the language brought to India during the first half of the second milllennium before Christ, to a region now called the Punjab. The Rig Vedas are the result of a systematic collection of versions originally spread over the subcontinent. Central to the Rig Vedas is the uncertainty of knowledge of nature's laws and phenomena.

352 Kathy Rae Huffman, cover text, accompanying the 1/2" tape.

353 Taped interview with the artist, March 25, 1987.

354 Quoted from "Putting the Whole back Together," Bill Viola in conversation with Otto Neumaier and Alexander Pühringer. In: Bill Viola, ed. Alexander Pühringer, Salzburg 1994, p.138.

355 Quotes from: Bill Viola: Buried Secrets, pp.27-31.

356 Marilyn A. Zeitlin, "Continuities in the Work of Bill Viola," Bill Viola. Buried Secrets, ed. Marilyn A. Zeitlin,  Tempe, AZ & Hannover, Germany, 1995, p.58.

357 Paul Ryan, Video Mind, Earth Mind: Art, Communication and Ecology,New York 1992.

358 Paul Ryan, "A Genealogy of Video," Leonardo, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1988, p.39.

359 John Giancola is currently preparing an ethnography of this early period of video work. Deirdre Boyle's Video Classics includes a number of the documentary/art videotapes made in the early seventies, but does not provide a survey. See Deirdre Boyle, Video Classics, Onyx Press, Phoenix AZ 1986.

360 Willoughby Sharp and Paul Ryan, "From Teenage Monk to Video Bareback Rider," A Willoughby Sharp Interview, Video 81, 2(1), pp. 14-17.

361 Paul Ryan, "A Genealogy of Video," p.40.

362 Jud Yalkut, Interview with Frank Gillette and Ira Schneider, East Village Other, August 6, 1969. Also: Gene Youngblood, Expanded Cinema, New York 1970, pp. 341-343.

363 James Haritbas, "Blueprint for a recreative reorientation," Video: Process and Meta-process, Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse, N.Y. 1973, Essay by Frank Gilette. Reprinted in RAdical Software, Vol.2, No.5, 1973, pp.44-45.

364 Raindance Archives, 51 Fifth Avenue, New York City. Electronic Arts Intermix, New York, has some Raindance tapes in distribution.

365 Global Village, founded by John Reilley and Julie Gustaffson in 1969, still produces independent video documentaries, schedules workshops and seminars, has regular screenings, and functions as a video study center. Video-freex was begun by David Cort. The Alternative Media Center at New York University was started by George Stoney and Red Burns, and holds an important archive of documentary video (many of it videotaped by artists). People's Video Theatre was initiated by the painters Ken Marsh and Howard Gutstadt.

366 Paul Ryan, "Cable Television: The Raw and the Overcooked," Radical Software, No. 1, New York, 1970, p.12.

367 Michael Shamberg, "Guerilla Television," Radical Software, Vol. 2, No. 1, September 1972, editorial page.

368 McLuhan had just published his book War and Peace in the Global Village, New York 1968.

369 Paul Ryan, "Cybernetic Guerilla Warfare," Radical Software, No. 3, Spring 1971, pp.1-2.

370 Paul Ryan, "The Earthscore Notational System for Orchestrating Perceptual Consensus about the Natural World," Leonardo, Vol. 24, No. 4, 1991, p. 457.

371 Paul Ryan, "Video Mind, Earth Mind," p.1.

372 Charles S. Peirce, The New Elements of Mathematics, Collected Papers, Vol. IV, ed. C. Hawthorne / P. Weiss, Cambridge, Mass. 1982, p.339.

+ Charles S.Peirce, Phänomen und Logik der Zeichen, Frankfurt/Main 1983, p.121ff. (niet in engelse tekst?)

373 Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind, New York 1972, p.441.

374 Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind, New York 1972, p.483.

375 Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind, New York 1972, p.487.

376 Warren McCulloch, Embodiment of Mind, Cambridge, Mass. 1965.

377 Paul Ryan, "Attempting a Calculus of Intention," Radical Software, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1971; Paul Ryan, "Toward an Information Economy," Radical Software, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1971.

378 Paul Ryan, "The Millennium, Montage, Remote Sensing and the Earthscore Method," in: Codes and Customs: Millennial Perspectives, ed. Roberta Kevelson, New York 1994, p.245.

379 Paul Ryan, "The Earthscore Notational System for Orchestrating Perceptual Consensus about the Natural World," Leonardo, Vol 24, No.4, 1991, p.464. Ryan's "Earthscore Notational System for Orchestrating Perceptual Consensus about the Natural World," addresses different layers of his system, theoretically and applied to video, as well as difficulties involved in creating a consensus concerning local ecologies in relation to language and perception. It also states Paul Ryan's (philosophical) theoretical position.

380 Ibid., pp.457-465.

381 Paul Ryan, "The Millennium, Montage, Remote Sensing and the Earthscore Method," in: Codes and Customs: Millennial Perspectives, ed. Roberta Kevelson, New York 1994, p.245.

382 In the early seventies the idea of utopian community living with ecological limits had become quite fashionable. And Ernest Callenbach's Ecotopia, published in 1975, was a widely read book. However, Ryan says that he never cared much for this direction, nor owed any ideas to it.

383 Paul Ryan, Video Mind, Earth Mind, Part Three: Bioregions, 1977-1980, New York 1992, pp.158-159.

384 James Lovelock, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, Oxford University Press, London and New York 1995

385 There were four quarterly issues published, totalling a distribution of 15,000 copies. Talking Wood was set up as a non-profit organization, and financed by the Labor Department's Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA).

386 Paul Ryan, Video Mind, Earth Mind, Part Three: Bioregions, 1977-1980, New York 1992, p.159.

387 Paul Ryan, Video Mind, Earth Mind, Part Four: Ecochannel, 1981-1985, New York 1992, p.202. The Ecochannel Design was presented in lectures and videotapes at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, in 1985, the first International EcoCity Conference, and and the World Congress of Local Governments for a Sustainable Future at the United Nations. It was published as "The Ecochannel Design," IS Journal, 2 (2), 1987, pp.46-64.

388 Ibid., p. 240.

389 Ibid., p.290.

390 Ibid., p. 293. The monitoring quality of television is extensively discussed in a forthcoming article "Neoluddites: Usurpers of Our Electronic Future."

391 Director/author is Jean Gardner; another member with whom Ryan works is artist/composer David Dunn. The Earth Environmental Group is a non-profit arts and education collaborative, dedicated to increasing public awareness of natural and architectural environments. Over the past twelve years, the collaborative carried out extensive field investigation and research into New York City's bioregions. Studies were conducted on vegetation, geology, wildlife, natural history, and human habitat. The findings of the Earth Environmental Group have been presented to the public in pamphlets, posters, filmstrips, radio programs, video, multimedia shows, and workshops.

392 Paul Ryan, "The Millennium, Montage, Remote Sensing and the Earthscore Method," p.260.

393 Letter from the artist, February 12, 1996.

394 Vasulka. Steina: machine vision/Woody: descriptions, ed. Linda Carthcart, Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo 1978, pp. 23, 31. See also: Wolfgang Preikschat, The Vasulkas - Vom Video-feedback zur hybriden Interaktion," Kunstforum International, March 1992, pp.184-193.

395 Woody Vasulka in the videotape Artifacts, 1980.

396 NYCA files. The Vasulkas were funded as members of a foundation, "Perception" in 1971 and 1972 through Howard Wise's Intermix (the future Electronic Arts Intermix).

397 The Kitchen opened June 15, 1971. Vasulkas: We said, "Let's use it electronically, as a place that does electronic music and electronic sounds... We, in fact, enjoyed certain things that were forbidden to the true radicals in the sense of purity of thinking of Buckminster Fuller or McLuhan. We would be very much involved in the phenomenon of time. And we could incorporate all those things: we took a certain interest in that particular aspect." In: Vasulka. Steina: machine vision/Woody: descriptions, p.32.

398 David L. Shirey, "Video Art Turns to Abstract Imagery," The New York Times, July 4, 1972, p.6.

399 Steina Vasulka, in Lucinda Furlong, "Notes Toward a History of Image-Processed Video - Steina and Woody Vasulka," Afterimage, December 1983, p.14.

400 Ibid., p. 48.

401 Steina Vasulka, "Reflections," Steina e Woody Vasulka: Video, media e nuove immagini nell' arte contemporanea, Palazzo delle Esposizioni, Rome 1995, p.98 (Italian/English).

402 Vidéographie, 3. Semaine Internationale de Vidéo, Saint-Gervais, Maison des Jeunes et de la Culture, Geneva, Switzerland, 1989 , p.43.

403 Lucinda Furlong, "Notes Toward a History of Image-Processed Video - Steina and Woody Vasulka," p.15.

404 Charles Hagen, "An Interview with Woody Vasulka," Afterimage, Summer 1978, p.20.

405 Scott Nygren, "Didactic Video: Organizational Models of the Electronic Image, Introduction," Afterimage, October 1975, p.9.

406 Woody Vasulka, "A Syntax of Binary Codes," Afterimage, Summer 1978, p.20.

407 Charles Hagen, "An Interview with Woody Vasulka," p.26.

408 Ibid., p.22.

409 Artist's statement. Quoted from: Marita Sturken, "In dialogue with the Machine," Steina and Woody Vasulka. Machine Media, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco 1996, p.44.

410 Steina Vasulka, "Reflections," Steina e Woody Vasulka: Video, media e nuove immagini nell' arte contemporanea, p.99.

411 Steina Vasulka, Artist's Statement, American Landscape Video - The Electronic Grove, The Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittburgh, PA 1988, p.103.

412 Steina, interview with MaLin Wilson in the exhibition brochure Scapes of Paradoxy: The Southwest and Iceland, Jonson Gallery, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque 1986.

413 Marita Sturken, "Steina and Woody Vasulka: In Dialogue with the Machine," Steina and Woody Vasulka. Machine Media, p.41.

414 Woody Vasulka and David Dunn, "The Theatre of Hybrid Automata," ars electronica, Virtuelle Welten, Band II, Linz, Austria, 1990, p.266.

415 Ibid., p.267.

416 Woody Vasulka, "From Printed Matter to Noncentric Space," Steina and Woody Vasulka. Machine Media, p.70.

417 Woody Vasulka and David Dunn, "The Theatre of Hybrid Automata," ars electronica, Virtuelle Welten, Band II, p.271.

418 Woody Vasulka, "From Printed Matter to Noncentric Space," Steina and Woody Vasulka. Machine Media, pp.70-71.

419 Woody Vasulka and David Dunn, "The Theatre of Hybrid Automata," ars electronica, Virtuelle Welten, Band II, p.271.

420 Shalom Gorowitz, in an interview with Lucinda Furlong, quoted in Afterimage, December 1983, p.12.

421 Charles Hagen, "An Interview with Woody Vasulka," p.21.

422 Ibid., p.23.

423 David Dunn/Woody Vasulka, "Digital Space: A Research Proposal," ars electronica, Virtuelle Welten, Band II, p.270.

424 Similar trains of thought can be found in Gene Youngblood's media theories. "We're seeing a gradual evolution toward a synthesis of camera and synthetic imagery, the acquired and the generated image, as it were.." In: Peter Broderick, "Since Cinema Expanded: Interview with Gene Youngblood," Millennium Film Journal, 20th Anniversary Special Edition, Nos. 16, 17, 18, Fall/Winter 1986-1987, p.60.

425 Gene Youngblood traced the 'evolution' of cinematic language in the new technologies that came to the fore at the time, computer films, video/television, laser movies, multi-projection environments, in Marshall McLuhan's terminology, as developments toward "the global intermedia network." "The notion of expanded cinema is both technical, in terms of new instruments for generating the audio-visual stream, but also sociological. I'm suggesting that it's politically and socially more useful, more appropriate to think of cinema this way than to define it in medium-specific terms," thus Youngblood in an interview conducted by Peter Broderick, Millennium Film Journal, 1986-87, pp.55-66.

426 Stewart Brand, Inventing the Future at MIT - The Media Lab, pp. 235-239.

427 Steven Durland, "defining the image as place - a conversation with kit galloway, sherrie rabinowitz & gene youngblood," High Performance, 37, 1987, p. 57.

428 Statement, ibid., p. 58.

429 Jonathan Benthall, Science and Technology in Art Today, Thames & Hudson, London 1972.

430 Steward Brand, Inventing the Future at MIT - The Media Lab, p. 83.

431 I must emphasize that this production process is different from the artist who hires assistants, like Sol LeWitt, Alice Aycock and many other sculptors do. Obviously, we have a different kind of collaborative process here.

432 The term post-industrial society was first put forth in a paper by Daniel Bell, "The Post-Industrial Society: A Speculative View of the United States in 1985 and Beyond," written in 1959, but which remained unpublished. See Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, Basic Books, Inc., New York 1973, p. 36, n. 43. Daniel Bell's theorems about the changes from an industrial to a post-industrial society, in which the knowledge and information structure would be the predominant feature, were very influential in the United States.

433 Raymond Bellour, "Interview with Bill Viola," October, 34, Fall 1985, pp. 112-113. Also: Nam June Paik, "Random Access Information," Artforum, September 1980, p. 46.

434 Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Community, cited from www.well.com/user/hrl/vcbook.

435 Robert Atkins, "The Art World & I Go On Line," Art in America, December 1995, pp. 58-65.

436 Jonathan Benthall, Science and Technology in Art Today, Thames & Hudson, London 1972

437 Steward Brand, The Media Lab: Inventing the Future at MIT, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth 1987, p.83

438 Cynthia Goodman, Digital Visions, Harry N.Abrams, New York & Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse 1987. See also the SIGGRAPH and the annual Ars Electronica (Linz, Austria)catalogues

439 I need to emphasize that this production process is different from the artist who hires assistants, like Sol LeWitt, Alice Aycock and many other sculptors do. Obviously, there is no question of an true collaborative process here.

440 See, for example, Heinrich Wölfflin, Kunstgeschichtliche Grundbegriffe (München 1918); Heinrich Wölfflin, Die klassische Kunst (Basel 1948); Hans Sedlmayer, Kunst und Wahrheit (Hamburg 1958); Wilhelm Worringer, Abstraktion und Einfühlung (2.Auflage, Piper, München 1909); Ernst Gombrich, Art and Illusion (Pantheon Books, New York 1960)

441 The term post-industrial society was first put forth in a paper by Daniel Bell, "The Post-Industrial Society: A Speculative View of the United States in 1985 and Beyond," written in 1959, but which remained unpublished. See Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, Basic Books, Inc., New York 1973, p.36, n.43 Daniel Bell's theorems on the changes from an industrial to a post-industrial society, in which the knowledge and information structure would be the predominant feature were highly influential in the United States.

442 Roy Ascott, "Towards a Field Theory for Post-Modernist Art," Leonardo, Vol.13,No.1, 1980, pp.51-52

443 Raymond Bellour, "Interview with Bill Viola," October, 34, Fall 1985, p.112-113 (pp.91-119) Also: Nam June Paik, "Random Access Information," Artforum, September 1980, p.46

444 Robert Atkins, "The Art World & I Go On Line," Art in America, December 1995, pp.58-65